The Wehrmacht, the unified armed forces of Nazi Germany from 1935 to 1945, played a pivotal role in the execution of Hitler’s expansionist and militaristic ambitions. Understanding what the Wehrmacht was requires looking beyond its battlefield role and examining its formation, structure, and controversial legacy. Although the Wehrmacht was initially portrayed as an apolitical, professional military, its deeper entanglements with the Nazi regime and war crimes committed during World War II have led to significant re-evaluations by historians and the public alike. Exploring the Wehrmacht’s composition, ideology, and operations sheds light on how militarism was used as an instrument of totalitarian power.
Formation and Origins of the Wehrmacht
From the Reichswehr to the Wehrmacht
The Wehrmacht replaced the Reichswehr, which was the limited military force allowed to Germany under the Treaty of Versailles following World War I. In 1935, Adolf Hitler defied this treaty by rearming Germany and establishing the Wehrmacht as a powerful force encompassing the Army (Heer), Navy (Kriegsmarine), and Air Force (Luftwaffe). This marked a decisive step in Nazi Germany’s preparation for aggressive warfare and territorial conquest across Europe.
Conscription and Militarization
Conscription was reintroduced to rapidly expand the military. Military service was glorified, and propaganda celebrated the Wehrmacht as a symbol of national pride and strength. The Wehrmacht thus became a central tool in Nazi Germany’s plans to undo the post-World War I international order.
Structure and Branches of the Wehrmacht
The Heer (Army)
The largest and most prominent branch of the Wehrmacht, the Heer carried out land-based operations. It was responsible for the blitzkrieg tactics that brought early victories for Germany in Poland, France, and the Soviet Union. With millions of men under arms, the Heer operated a complex network of divisions, armored units, and support forces.
The Kriegsmarine (Navy)
The Kriegsmarine was a comparatively smaller branch, but it played a crucial role in the Battle of the Atlantic. German U-boats (submarines) targeted Allied shipping lines, causing substantial losses. The surface fleet, although limited, included notable vessels like the battleship Bismarck.
The Luftwaffe (Air Force)
The Luftwaffe was a formidable air force that provided air superiority in the early years of the war. It supported ground invasions, conducted bombing campaigns, and was led by Hermann Göring, a top Nazi official. Its participation in the Blitz and the Battle of Britain marked major aerial conflicts of the war.
The Wehrmacht and Nazi Ideology
Initial Claims of Political Neutrality
Initially, Wehrmacht leaders claimed the military was separate from politics and operated under traditional military codes. However, this supposed neutrality was undermined by loyalty oaths sworn directly to Adolf Hitler rather than to the state. This personal allegiance blurred the line between professional duty and ideological complicity.
Participation in Atrocities
Contrary to post-war myths of a ‘clean Wehrmacht,’ substantial evidence has shown that many Wehrmacht units were directly involved in war crimes. These included the execution of civilians, support for the Holocaust, and participation in the brutal occupation of Eastern Europe. Military operations often coincided with SS and Einsatzgruppen killings, especially on the Eastern Front.
- Mass executions of Soviet POWs
- Support in rounding up Jews and partisans
- Destruction of villages suspected of harboring resistance
Key Campaigns and Military Performance
Invasion of Poland and Blitzkrieg
The Wehrmacht’s invasion of Poland in 1939 marked the beginning of World War II. Blitzkrieg, or lightning war, was a military strategy emphasizing speed and surprise. This approach led to swift victories across much of Europe in the early war years, including in Denmark, Norway, Belgium, and France.
Operation Barbarossa
In June 1941, the Wehrmacht launched Operation Barbarossa, the largest military invasion in history, targeting the Soviet Union. Although initially successful, the harsh winter, logistical failures, and Soviet resistance turned the campaign into a devastating quagmire. The Eastern Front would become the bloodiest theater of the war.
Decline and Defeat
As the tide of war shifted, the Wehrmacht suffered heavy defeats at Stalingrad and in North Africa. From 1943 onward, Germany was mostly on the defensive. Despite fierce resistance, the Wehrmacht could not stop the Allied advance from both East and West, leading to the fall of Berlin in May 1945.
Aftermath and Legacy
Disbandment and Denazification
Following Germany’s surrender in 1945, the Wehrmacht was disbanded by the Allies. The post-war occupation focused on denazification, and former Wehrmacht officers were subject to scrutiny during the Nuremberg Trials. While the leadership of the SS was more directly held accountable for crimes against humanity, the Wehrmacht’s role was gradually re-evaluated.
Myths of a Clean Wehrmacht
For many years after the war, a narrative persisted in Germany and abroad portraying the Wehrmacht as a professional force uninvolved in Nazi crimes. This view was convenient for national reconciliation and allowed many veterans to reintegrate into society. However, historical research beginning in the 1980s debunked this myth and highlighted the Wehrmacht’s involvement in atrocities.
Modern Historiographical Debates
Today, the role of the Wehrmacht is widely debated among scholars and educators. Museums and memorials in Germany have acknowledged its complex legacy, including exhibitions dedicated to its crimes and the victims of occupation. Understanding the Wehrmacht’s true role in World War II remains essential for grappling with the broader legacy of Nazism.
What Was the Wehrmacht?
The Wehrmacht was not merely a conventional army; it was a powerful arm of a totalitarian regime that sought domination through war and terror. It played a central role in executing Germany’s aggressive military strategy, while also becoming entangled in crimes against humanity. The idea of a politically neutral, honorable Wehrmacht has been dismantled by decades of historical research, revealing a far more troubling reality. By studying the Wehrmacht, we gain crucial insights into how military power can be harnessed for destructive ends when paired with ideology and authoritarian control. This understanding is vital for both historical awareness and the defense of democratic values today.